Abortion: a Practice of Contraception Essay

Abortion is the deliberate killing of the weakest and most defenseless among us. Unfortunately, for the last few decades, the practice has been recognized as a fundamental human right by the highest court of the land. Many people are fervent supporters of abortion. Their reasons for support are varied. However, I believe that support for abortion is not possible for those who understand our dignity as human persons under God. We were made by God, and it is from Him that we derive our worth The issue of abortion is one of the most commonly used as a topic for academic argumentative papers. Definitely, abortion is a very sensitive issue from the moral and ethical points of view, and there are numerous proponents and opponents of abortions in the US. See more: Examples of satire in adventures of huckfinn essay Writing an academic paper on abortion can give the writer a great field for arguing and discussing numerous pros and cons of this controversial issue. At the same time, writing argumentative essay on abortion can help author formulate own point of view on this problem and demonstrate own opinion and position regarding abortion legalization. Many people consider abortion as a cruel, unnatural, and absolutely immoral human act, that is why they are arguing for banning abortions. They qualify it as a murder of an unborn child and argue for launching criminal responsibility to those who intend to do abortion. They are convinced that such thing as abortion can never be considered ethical and it infringes all moral norms and postulates on which our society is based. They believe that abortions as a concept is very unhealthy and even dangerous to normal development of our social life. Those are the most important con factors which can be mentioned when working on argumentative essay on abortion. There are also numerous proponents of the abortion issue, who believe that there is nothing wrong about it and it is a personal matter of every modern woman whether to keep the unborn baby or not. Such individual point on numerous incidents of rape or incest which sometimes simply require abortion as a salvation from the situation. Also, they say that some pregnant women choose abortion since they are not ready for motherhood or do not have funds to rise the child properly. These are quite strong pro arguments which should also be mentioned in any academic paper on abortion.

Final Project Paper Essay

Competitive Strategies and Government Policies Paper Learning Team Competitive Strategies and Government Policies Management has recognized the effect of changes in the real-world competitive environment and government policies on other industries and anticipates similar events occurring in their industry, so they ask you for a report considering the following points. Write 1,400 ?1,750-word paper of no more than in which you describe how each of the following are or potentially will affect your industry or one with which you are familiar: New companies entering the market, mergers, and globalization, on pricing and the sustainability of profits: Identify the type of merger activity in your industry or one with which you are familiar?horizontal, vertical, or conglomerate and explain why you made that choice. Current and expected government policies and regulations, including taxes and regulations in place to address issues related to externalities Global competition on the decisions made by management with regards to change in labor demand, supply, relations, unions, and rules and regulations in your chosen industry Recommend how the industry you chose may respond to each of the previous points. Format your paper consistent with APA guidelines Business – General Business Focus of the Final Project Students will write a Feature Story (800-1,000 words) on a topic and for a magazine of their choice. This project requires students to incorporate the major concepts discussed during the course, such as applying various media communication tools, identifying audience, gathering information and research, and understanding the editing process. The Feature Story should  demonstrate a student’s comprehension of the readings and class discuss†¦ A+ tutorial you will find here – https://bitly.com/12Cn79p Set yourself up for success in college by taking your habits and ideas into consideration. For example, think about whether you are a morning person or an afternoon person. If you aren’t a morning person, don’t even think about signing up for an early class. Schedule courses later in the day so you won’t be tempted to skip. Business – General Business Focus of the Final Project Students will write a Feature Story (800-1,000 words) on a topic and for a magazine of their choice. This project requires students to incorporate the major concepts discussed during the course, such as applying various media communication tools, identifying audience, gathering information and research, and understanding the editing process. The Feature Story should demonstrate a student’s comprehension of the readings and class discussions as well as the implications of new knowledge in the field of media writing and editing.

Jeffrey Bezos

Most people believe a leader is either born or made. When it comes to Jeffrey Bezos, I believe it is a combination of the two. Bezos, founder of Amazon. com, was born into a family full of extraordinary people. Jeffrey’s step-father was a petroleum engineer and his grandfather was the manager of the Atomic Energy Commission’s operations office (Bezos, Ebsco). During his childhood, Jeff was intrigued by his surroundings, often finding ways to alter or enhance everyday items. The people and experiences throughout Bezos’ life have helped him become the successful CEO he is today.Jeff Bezos, born Jeffrey Preston Jorgensen, was born on January 12, 1964 in Albuquerque, New Mexico. After his parents split up, his mother raised him until he was two years old. In 1966, Miguel Bezos came into the picture. After his mother remarried, Jeff was legally adopted and took Miguel’s last name. (Bezos, Ebsco) Since a young age, Jeffrey Bezos has been intrigued by the way thi ngs work. At three years old, Jeff took a screwdriver to his crib, disassembling it into multiple parts. This trend continued when later down the road he built a burglar alarm with an electronic kit his grandfather had given him (Bezos, Encycl).Bezos’ grandfather, Lawrence Preston Gise, played a big part in who Jeff is today (Bezos, Ebsco). From age four to sixteen, Jeff would spend the summers living on his grandfather’s ranch in Cotulla, Texas (Brandt). Here, Jeff’s grandfather put him to work doing jobs such as fixing windmills and repairing pumps. Bezos’ grandfather used his background in working on space technology and missile defense systems to help spark Jeff’s interest in similar things (Bezos, Ebsco). But this was just the beginning. At age eight, Jeff was enrolled in a gifted program at his elementary school in Houston, Texas.Jeff used his intelligence to wow teachers with his knowledge of computers. While none of the teachers even knew h ow to use a computer, Jeff and some of his friends had managed to program one. A local author by the name of Julie Ray took interest in Bezos and featured him in her book, Turning on Bright Minds: A Parent Looks at Gifted Children in Texas. (Bezos, Ebsco) In 1978, Miguel Bezos was transferred to Miami, Florida where Jeff’s fascination with space began. Jeff went to Palmetto High School where he was already thinking out of the box for his time.Bezos hoped to one day become an astronaut on a shuttle that would take passengers from earth into outer space. (Bezos, Ebsco) Bezos graduated from Palmetto High School in 1982 where he was class valedictorian. Along with this honor, he received recognition from the Miami Herald for his academic excellence by winning the Silver Knight Award. Upon graduating high school, Bezos began running his own business with his then girlfriend before heading off to college. Jeff spent the summer establishing an educational summer camp for children. B ezos, Ebsco) In the fall of 1982, Jeff began studying at Princeton University in New Jersey. He graduated summa cum laude in 1986 with a Bachelor of Science in Computer Science and Electrical Engineering (Bezos, Ebsco). After graduation, there were many opportunities awaiting Jeffrey Bezos. He proceeded to go to New York to work for Fitel, a company that allowed him to build a worldwide communications network for financial trading (Bezos, Encycl. ). Two years later, while Fitel was struggling, Bezos accepted a job with Bankers Trust Corporation.This new job opportunity allowed him to develop software applications for the company’s pension fund clients. Jeffrey moved among the rankings quickly at Bankers Trust; within 10 months he became the company’s youngest vice-president (Bezos, Ebsco). But shortly after, Bezos realized this company was not for him. The next move would prove important in Bezos’ path to becoming an up and coming entrepreneur. In 1990, Jeffrey Bezos was hired by Wall Street financial trading company, D. E. Shaw. Bezos’ duties at D. E. Shaw included looking for new investment opportunities in areas such as insurance, software, and internet.In 1992, Bezos proved he was capable of his role by securing â€Å"one of the most successful qualitative funds on Wall Street†. He was promoted to senior vice-president shortly after. (Bezos, Ebsco) While researching for new business opportunities in the internet sector, Bezos came across some data that would help him in his decision to develop Amazon. com. According to these numbers, the internet was growing at an exceedingly fast rate. Jeffrey decided it was a good time for his next big step. He quit his job in 1994 at D. E. Shaw and prepared to venture into the world of online retail. Bezos, Ebsco) Jeffrey Bezos began by looking into what products could be sold successfully in the online retail market. He composed a list and determined that books would be the best choic e. Bezos told Karen Southwick in October of 1996 that â€Å"there are 1. 5 million Eng lish-language books in print at any given time. If you take all languages worldwide, it’s about 3 million books active and in print. † Bezos knew from his computer background that an online sorting and organizing database to purchase books would catch on. (Bezos, Ebsco) Jeffrey and his wife Mackenzie packed up and headed for the west coast.Jeffrey chose to start his new conquest in Seattle, Washington. Seattle offered a large number of skilled workers and was located by the largest book distributing company in the United States (Bezos, Ebsco). After experimenting with different names, Bezos decided to name the company Amazon after the world’s largest river (Bezos, Encycl. ). Using money from investors, his savings, and his parents, Bezos launched Amazon. com in July of 1995 from his garage in Seattle. At the close of the first month, it is said that Bezos had received orders f rom customers in all fifty states.The large quantity of books available on the database as well as the new features available on the site enticed many customers. (Bezos, Ebsco) Bezos and his colleagues established features that would change internet shopping forever. Amazon was the first of its kind to offer one click-shopping, customer reviews, and e-mail order verification (Hoover’s). Bezos’ main focus of the site was customer satisfaction. Along with these new additions to the site, Amazon was also one of the first companies to encrypt credit card numbers, ensuring safe shopping for their customers (Bezos, Credo).Jeff Bezos helped familiarize the public with on-line shopping, and it quickly became as popular as a trip to the mall (Bezos, Ebsco). After attracting 3 million customers, Bezos decided to take Amazon public in 1997. Jeffrey Bezos quickly became one of the first internet billionaires (Bezos, Credo). In 1998, Amazon broadened their inventory and began selli ng new products in order to gain new customers. Along with books, Amazon. com began offering CDs, videos, electronics, clothing, toys, and games to its millions of customers worldwide (Bezos, Ebsco). In 1999, Amazon. om hit a huge milestone when its sales crossed the billion-dollar mark. During this same year, Jeffrey Bezos was named Time Magazine’s Person of the Year (Bezos, Ebsco). What once started as a small company in Bezos’ garage in Seattle had turned into the â€Å"world’s biggest everything store†. In 2000, Amazon. com teamed up with ToysRUs. com to launch a co-branded toy and video game store. However, this new partnership would not last long. Over the next few years, Amazon would dabble in an array of products. In 2002, Bezos began offering clothing sales from large retail stores such as the Gap, Nordstrom, and Land’s End.A few years later, in 2006, Amazon. com dabbled in online dry groceries. A year later the company began offering a fr esh delivery service for the Seattle area. (Hoovers) In 2007, Amazon expanded once again. Bezos introduced Amazon’s new electronic portable reader, the Kindle. By 2011, Amazon announced that they sell more e-books than printed books. Along with new items such as the Kindle, Amazon began offering products and services such as self-publishing, online advertising, e-commerce platform, hosting, and a co-branded credit card. (Hoovers) Today, Amazon. om has five international websites for Canada, France, Germany, Japan, and the United Kingdom. The company has an estimated 20 million customers in 160 countries across the world (Bezos, Credo). According to Hoover’s Quick Report, Amazon. com employs 56,200 employees as of 2011 at all of their sites. Amazon’s efficient operating model has allowed it to succeed despite downward pressure on prices. Offering low prices to their customers has been a key success to Amazon’s business strategy (Hoovers). As a Business Man agement major, there are many things one can learn from looking at Jeffrey Bezos’ life.He saw a business opportunity and did everything he could to make it work. Starting off in his garage in Seattle, Bezos turned Amazon. com into the world’s largest online store. Despite the many years of not turning profit, Bezos managed to make Amazon. com into the company it is today. By focusing on customer service, Jeffrey Bezos was able to appeal to new customers and keep the current ones satisfied. Works Cited Bezos, Jeff (1964-). (2010). In The Hutchinson Unabridged Encyclopedia with Atlas and Weather Guide. Retrieved from http://www. credoreference. om/entry/heliconhe/bezos_jeff_1964 Bezos, Jeff. (2003). In Capstone Encyclopedia of Business. Retrieved from http://www. credoreference. com/entry/capstonebus/bezos_jeff Bezos, Jeff. (2004, Jan 1). Leaders of Information Age (Bio Ref Bank. Brandt, R. L. (2011, Oct 15). REVIEW — Birth of a Salesman — Behind the Rise o f Jeff Bezos and Amazon: Richard L. Brandt on the Founder’s Texas Roots, the Sites Chaotic Early Days, Why Negative Reviews are Allowed and the Increasing Use of Personalized Data. Wall Street Journal, pp. C. 1. -C. 1. http://search. proquest. com/docview/898391472? accountid=2837

Business plan Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Business plan - Assignment Example The majority of Canadian customers are not ready to accept reduced quality of commercial ice creams. Hence the potential for specialized ice creams is high in this market. By combining beverages as ice coffee, milk shakes, hot cappuccino and hot coco, with the desserts and ice creams, the SW&D offers a year round reason for customers to visit the outlet. The business model that would be used in the SW&D venture would be a Differentiated Value experience where even through the pricing would be up-market and above market averages, the exotic varieties of deserts, the freshness and natural ingredients will deliver a value package that will differentiate the company. The products will be exclusive and exotic in nature but reasonably priced to maintain affordability. The expectations is that SW&D’s premium image will offer a low price elasticity in terms of economic considerations and make customers willing to pay additional money to experience the SW&D quality. Combined expertise of the two partnering entrepreneurs, Neil and Susan Shucroft will offer culinary expertise in dessert making which Neil acquired in qualifications and experience during the years in Europe as well as Susan’s service management experience in food service field. The initial financial analysis points to a highly lucrative venture and the capital funding to be invested can be recovered within 2 years period of time. This is a relatively low investment venture with high profitability returns of around 50% GP margins and 15% average NP margins. Such profitability is common to Food service industry, if the venture’s operations are managed stringently and with cost and quality consciousness. This business report provides a comprehensive market analysis and prose the business and functional level strategies as well as a preliminary financial analysis for the review of prospective investors of this

Personal Response to Poems Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Personal Response to Poems - Essay Example As do the plums, with their taut skin and juice, the tart flesh, all connected to the word 'delicious', suggesting a sensual, selfish, joyful gluttony, which children often indulge in. It makes me want to laugh, it is almost naughty. In Mary Oliver's 'August', the imagery here combines a joy of eating fruit again, but shows a child happy with nature and its own company, a pleasure in just 'being', conjured up in the way the poet says 'my body accepts what it is'. 'The Word Plum' stands out as concentrating entirely on the fruit and the sensations it elicits, while the others give more descriptive and external images to link the fruit and the child to an environment. In Roethke's 'My Papa's Waltz', there are sad and slightly dangerous undertones. The feeling aroused here is one of concern for the potential destruction of the little boy's happiness. I begin to become worried for him, despite his enjoyment and excitement, as something unpredictable and frenetic is present, I think the whiskey smell alerts me to this feeling. The words 'But I hung on like death' are significant, this father is creating mayhem, wrecking the room, and the child is half-delighted, half-fearful of the final outcome. But for love of his father, he suffers this delicious fear, as well as the buckle scraping his face. Even more sad is Robert Hayden's 'Those Winter Sundays'. I think of the fathers who work so hard and do so many unnoticed kindnesses, who are taken for granted. The child does this, the voice of the poet as a man, is filled with regret. There is also a feeling of potential disturbance expressed in the words 'and slowly did I rise and dress fearing the chronic angers of that house'. The last two poems of this group, while recalling childhood memories, suggest a more mature understanding, an awakening to the dangers which can effect the happiness of a child. They also make me think that with this awareness comes the realization that there are things a child cannot control or fully understand, but that despite this, they will try to remain h appy, to keep their innocence intact. All the poems suggest love is abundant, in various forms. The next group of poems also speaks of love, with many facets depicted, but it is the grown-up reality of the ways of the world which are portrayed. Marilyn Hacker's 'Villanelle' shares, I think, the discovery of young, physical love and tries to deepen understanding of how it takes over ones life, as in 'routines are harder to perpetuate.' It brings out a feeling of striving for what cannot be fully understood or attained; complete possession of another, because the separation may be as much mental as physical. Louise Gluck seems to echo this in 'Parable of Faith'. The other three poems seem to be more mature, or have more certainty, without losing the wonder of being in love, or loving deeply. For example, 'Love Poem' by John Frederick Nims tells of somebody accepting the beloved's faults or apparent inadequacies, the small, everyday things that do not really matter, because the essence of the person is far greater than these, and he loves her for that. 'With words and people and

Resource Review - Social Media and Vaccine Rejection Essay

Resource Review - Social Media and Vaccine Rejection - Essay Example What is social media’s role in all of this? Traditionally, geographic proximity was necessary for mobilizing anti-vaccination forces. However, social media has circumvented this potential barrier, allowing individuals from disparate regions who likely would not have otherwise communicated to come into contact. In this process, individuals who had otherwise had their viewpoints rejected and been marginalized can be emboldened and can feel empowered. Social media also provides these individuals with new dynamic mechanisms to communicate their viewpoints. Researchers have observed this in several ways while studying vaccine concerns. 7 Vaccination is an important aspect of modern medicine and has been used to avert adverse effects of many diseases. It is believed that vaccines have saved more lives across the world more than any other medical product. The history of vaccination can be traced to 429 BC when the Greek historian, Thucydides noted that those who suffered from small pox in Athens were not re-infected with the disease. During the 900 AD, Chinese discovered and used a vaccination form called variolation which was carried as early as 10th century but was most used between 14th and 17th centuries (Hsu, 2012). The technology used to prevent people from small pox during this time was exposing healthy individuals to tissue from the disease’s scabs. Even though variolation caused mild illness and sometimes death, the rate of small pox infections were lower in many populations. During 1796, Dr. Edward Jenner, a British physician discovered the modern vaccination and proved to the medical professionals that it worked. This led to the support for vaccination in 1803 and founding of the Royal Jennerian institute which popularize vaccination in Europe and United States (Hsu, 2012). However, during 1870s, vaccination encountered violent oppositions as it spreads since

Human growth and development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Human growth and development - Essay Example Severe stress usually happen when the job is lost whereby the individual is situated with a family relationship or when an individual has to take another job which he or she perceives to be below his or her dignity and competence. Many resort to alcohol as coping mechanism while a number suffer depression. Another common stressor is strained relationships which drives many people to depression and to some point, even suicide. This usually involves divorce in the case of middle age adults and romantic break ups in the case of early adults. This is more stressful with middle aged adults because the stakes are higher such as consideration of the children, division of assets, alimony etch. Stressed early and middle adult typically resort to indulging in anti depressant substance such as alcohol or pills (valium etch.) to forget their problems. And to some extent, many seek professional help to enable them to cope with the

What Impact the Policy of Implementation of Performance Based Funding Research Proposal

What Impact the Policy of Implementation of Performance Based Funding will have on Historically Black Colleges and Universities in Louisiana - Research Proposal Example As the paper outlines the stated objective behind such funding is to provide quality education in such institutions at nominal costs. State funding to Historically Black Colleges and Universities is being provided with a White House initiative set in motion by President Jimmy Carter1 in 1980 with the objective of, ‘overcoming the effects of discriminatory treatment and to strengthen and expand the capacity of historically black colleges and universities to provide quality education’. President Reagan subsequently established the ‘White House Initiative on Historically Black Colleges and Universities’ in 1981. As a result the state of Louisiana saw emergence of public institutions like Grambling State University; Southern University and A&M College; Southern University at New Orleans; Southern University at Shreveport together with couple of private institutions. Today, products and services are objectively assessed from the point of view of their functionali ty, value proposition and the overall performance. Market forces have now acquired a predominant role while limiting the roles of the respective governments to that of a facilitator. Educational institutions too are now expected to come out with matching results and professional approach in imparting education. Therefore now we hear about suggestions for ‘performance based funding’ to educational institutions and take necessary punitive action if any institution is found to be drifting in its duties and responsibilities and resulting in below par performances.

5 page in depth essay on any topic of criminal justice system of New

5 page in depth on any topic of criminal justice system of New York - Essay Example This paper will explore these and ultimately examine the relationship between incarceration and crime. The positive change in the prison statistics in the state of New York is attributed to the changes and reforms in the law enforcement policies of the state. The state has led reforms and innovations particularly in regard to the reformatory characteristic of its incarceration policy and its introduction of the modern parole. Reform was forced out of the policymakers because in the first half of 1990s, tightening revenues threaten the budget of correctional facilities and that the state correction facilities were then already overcrowded and still more prisoners are awaiting assignments. And so, one of the first acts as governor of the former Governor George Pataki was to loosen laws on minor repeat offenders in order to help decrease prison population and help ease the pressure on the correction system. (Clear, Cole and Reisig 15) Then the state legislature amended and relaxed the so-called Rockefeller Drug Laws, which made New York one of the strictest states when it came to polici ng drug offenders. Indeed, starting the latter half of the 1990s onwards, the prison commitments steadily dropped prompting the state to close some prison facilities and save millions of taxpayers’ money. The New York experience highlighted the requirement of effective prison policy – one that is characterized by a set of graduated options that can be tailored to specific situations. This led New York policymakers and criminal justice planners to one of its new policies - the use of a variety of alternative sentencing mechanisms, which include: residential community corrections; community service and alternatives to corrections; and, probation. (Mumpower and Ilchman 544) All these alternatives are considered to be less punitive and incapacitative than state prison, but in graduated degrees. Changes in law enforcement policies included the police making fewer

Role of the Advanced Practice Nurse Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Role of the Advanced Practice Nurse - Assignment Example , DeCristofaro, & Smith (2004), NPs use a clinical decision-making worksheet a tool that eases organization of information, which reinforces documentation and communication as well as a design that can increase clinical problem solving (p. 535). On the other hand, an RN always communicates through their ‘nursing forms’. In regard to documentation and reporting, the NP is expected to recognize and support a medical diagnosis while an RN is restricted by nurse practice act definitions. Moreover, an NP writes documentation that is constant with reimbursement codes, while an RN holds on to the values of addressing the individual from a holistic point of view (Spain et al., 2004). RNs are educated to share information in a stylized writing that consist redundant or superfluous data. An excellent example is where the nurse receives a patient and records â€Å"received patient awake and alert† where no observation is required in regards to the individual neurological status and may implant the major complication in slang. The RN has a scientific education background that helps them in recognizing patients’ emotional needs (Claywell, 2013). The fulfillment of this profession depends on the possession of practical knowledge such as current treatment measures, the science of diseases and physiology. The NP on the other hand, is in a position to employ critical thinking expertise to develop hypothesis, ranking them by expectation and making decision on what more information is required, therapeutic intervention plan and formulating a final impression. The NP also possesses the nine core competencies regardless of the setting (Thomas et. Al.,

Human Cloning Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Human Cloning - Research Paper Example Besides therapeutic and reproductive cloning another category of cloning called the replacement cloning is also gaining prevalence. Replacement cloning is an amalgamation of therapeutic as well as reproductive cloning. The term gained prominence as it involves comprehensively injured, abortive, or weakening body, and replacement of the whole or partial organ or part of the body. The present article discusses the pros and cons of human cloning while extracting attention to understand the significance of human cloning in the advancement of human civilization. Introduction Human cloning is the process of generating a genetically indistinguishable replica of human being. The process is thought to be of therapeutic or reproductive importance. Therapeutic cloning encompasses cloning cells for their exploitation in treating various ailments. On the other hand reproductive cloning generates human clones, this is prohibited in many nations because of ethical concerns. The moral predicament of human cloning lies on the argument either to promote or to impede cloning (Human cloning). The Problems/Dangers and Controversies of Cloning Cloning is discouraged by various nations as cloning is against the rule of nature, which is generating humans, nurturing them and paving the way for uncertainties related with the repercussions of science. At present human population has crossed the figure of 7 billion, a huge burden on the planet. Is cloning going to resolve the issue of exponentially increasing human population is a big question imposed by the detractors of human cloning (Disadvantages of cloning). Considering the previous failures that involved Dolly experiments, uncertainty of science technology is mounting. Detractors of human cloning have their say about the loss of genetic diversity leading to higher probability and pervasiveness of genetic diseases. Poor adaptability of clones may become detrimental for situations of jeopardy. Inbreeding leads to self-annihilation. Cl oning is inhumane as it abolish the bond of love and care and is said to be transgressing the nature. The process of cloning highlight that the human or scientists can play the role of Creator or God as cloning is a kind of asexual reproduction, therefore reduces the sense of distinctiveness of a character, lacking uniqueness and freedom (Disadvantages of cloning; Williamson, 1999). Morally it is not supported by the opponents as they believe that human beings cannot take the laws of mother nature in hand and one cannot play the role of the Creator, God of the universe. For therapeutic use also if embryonic stem cells are being used, it is an eventual process of killing the embryo (Ethical Dilemmas of Cloning). It is also noteworthy to have an insight regarding the amplification in human population and ecological burden on resources and on other surviving species. Growing population is putting pressure on the demands of basic amenities, infrastructures and social set ups; with human cloning, further contribution to disaster cannot be eluded (Disadvantages of cloning). According to Savulescu (1999), human cloning is accountable to abuse, a person's right to individualism and self-sufficiency and being self is violated, moreover genetic individuality is also lost and human beings are used as a model organism.

Community Response to a Community Problem Essay Example for Free

Community Response to a Community Problem Essay The youth gang problem in Southern California has reached epidemic proportions, and it calls for immediate action. However, any meaningful response on a social concern must be made with an understanding of the root causes of such an issue. Here we identify possible key causes of gang involvement and draw out implications for possible solutions to the problems involved. The key solutions require going beyond the individual, towards taking community action. Solving Californias gang problem, as in any â€Å"issue† or social problem, would not be easy. As a social problem, it must be studied systematically and would invariably require a social response. This social response means the involvement of many if not all community members, not just those directly concerned with the issue. It also means tapping significant community resources. At a practical level, community response is key as some possible solutions would entail a lot of resources, such as increasing self-esteem among youth at risk, stressing the importance of education, and providing training services. Gangs, Youth, Class and Violence: Reasons to Act Los Angeles County in particular has been called the gang capital of the world. Gang activity in the place accounts for a significant amount of violent crimes with approximately 6617 gang-related crimes committed in 2006 (House of Representatives, 1993). Gang members were believed responsible for 19 percent of the robberies, and 10 percent to 12 percent of the total felonious assaults in the southeast division of Los Angeles (Joint Committee on Organized Crime and Gang Violence). Today, in the City of Los Angeles alone there are more than 250 active gangs with over 26,000 members, while in the entire LA County there are around 950 gangs with more than 100,000 individuals (www. lapdonline. org). The most unfortunate aspect of this development perhaps is that more and more young people are involving themselves in gangs and are being exposed to or are themselves causing a lot of violence. Juvenile offenders are the nations fastest growing crime problem. While adult violent crime rates have remained fairly steady over the past decade, juvenile offenses have soared. It appears that the catalyst for this violence is the presence of gangs in low-income, urban areas. A study by the Office of the Attorney General of the State of California reveals that in 2006 approximately 5,168 arrests were made per 100,000 juveniles (age 10-17) compared to 5,283 arrests per 100,000 adults. (http://ag. ca. gov) In low-income, urban areas of Southern California, much of the increase in youth violence can be traced to gangs, usually in confrontations between rival gang members. As one expert witness has testified, â€Å"Drive-by shootings, turf wars, and homicides are mostly tied to gangs† (http://www. lapdonline. org).

Benefits of Internet Opportunities for SMEs in Mauritius

Benefits of Internet Opportunities for SMEs in Mauritius Acknowledgement Many individuals have played an important role in our upbringing and education To our parents, who deserve special recognition. We would also like to extend a special acknowledgement to our lecturer, Mr. D Seethiah for giving us the opportunity to reflect and work on such a project. Thanks to our group who have been working very hard for accomplishment of this assignment. Finally, we extend our appreciation to the Almighty for granting us good health and prosperity. Executive summary SMEs are called upon to play a competitive role in the economy of Mauritius. Adoption of ICT by SMEs can a have positive impact on the national economy. The reasons are: (a) Internet based infrastructures are relatively cheap; (b) they provide an ever converging and rich environment for effective business networking; and (c) they provide SMEs access to a larger market. This assignment examines the extent internet provides opportunities for business expansion of SMEs in Mauritius. It also identifies the enablers and barriers to the use of internet by SMEs. A questionnaire was used to collect data among some SMEs. They were classified as follows: IT Novice, IT Savvy and e-Commerce Specialist. The findings are reported, based on the analysis of the data collected. Several key findings emerge from the research in this assignment: IT Savvy and e-Commerce Specialist use computers, they have internet connection that they exclusively use for email and they have a website too. The degree of diffusion of the internet is high among IT Savvy and e-Commerce Specialist. For SMEs to take advantage of the opportunities provided by the internet for business expansion, they will have to acquire knowledge and skills in using the internet and be made aware of the facilities being offered by the NCB and the existing laws in the field of e-commerce. They will also have to bank on the vulgarization of the use of internet amongst customers or at least, for the time being, design/customize products that could help target a certain market segment. Introduction Internet has revolutionized and continues to deeply impact on the way one does business. It is now a major tool for conducting business. It allows buyers and sellers to meet online, communicate and exchange information on goods and services. Besides, it does away with the geographical boundaries, the time zones and, in some cases, the need for physical space to transact business. With its tremendous potential, it has become commonplace for businesses and consumers to transact business via the Internet through email or online purchasing. For the SMEs, it offers a vista of opportunities for business expansion. However, many SMEs do not take advantage of the Internet thinking that their goods and services do not lend themselves to Internet transactions. Moreover, they do not possess the managerial knowledge and skills for e-business. Hiring an IT-expert or an e-business consultant to fill this gap requires relatively huge sum of money, which they cannot afford. Sometimes, the availability of broadband connections may affect the decisions of SMEs to adopt e-commerce. Further, sound government policies should be in place to create the necessary environment and incentives to encourage SMEs to take advantage of the Internet to create business opportunities. Many unscrupulous persons are interested in the huge potential of the Internet for their own selfish motives. In countries where there are no appropriate legal instruments, there may be a host of possible attacks that compromise the confidentiality, integrity and availability of information that they exchange through the Internet. Consequently, people may lose trust on the security of doing business in the Internet and thus forego it huge potential for business. Literature Review SMEs in MAURITIUS According to the minister of Finance and Economic Development, Dr. R. K. Sithanen: A key component in the governments agenda for economic development and democratization is the development of the small and medium enterprise sector into a competitive force (April 2006). Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) are widely acknowledged as an important sector for national and international economic development. Growth oriented small business make a major contribution to economic development and employment generation within local communities and national economies. (Smallbone and Wyer, 2000) SMEs contribute substantially to national economies (Poon and Swatman, 1999) and are estimated to account for 80 per cent of global economic growth (Jutla et al, 2002). It is no secret that globalization (r)evolution and communication technologies (ICT) are going to change the structure of the any economy. (Kaushalesh Lal and Aveeraj Sharma Peedoly, 2006). With the government of Mauritius promoting small and medium enterprises as a competitive sector of the economy, organizational and technological changes in these firms are expected to have significant impact on the national economy. Proponents of globalization argue that it will open a window of opportunities for SMEs while networking capabilities of ICTs suggest that SMEs can augment their competitiveness in global markets. In fact several studies (Lal, 2004 and Drew, 2003) found positive impact of the adoption of ICTs by SMEs. Although there is very little data pertaining to the evolution of SMEs across time, the origins of SMEs in Mauritius can be traced back to the 1960s when Mauritius was witnessing the beginning of a timid industrialization process with an import-substitution strategy with the main objective of supplying the local market and giving certain autonomy to the country. The inward-looking industrial policy of the Government of the day was of encouraging the production of such commodities as the manufacturing of blades, electrical bulbs, batteries, soap, welding and steel work for construction, refining edible oils, plastic industry, food canning, industrial poultry breeding, yogurt manufacturing, biscuits, shoes, matches etc for the domestic market; this was also the prevailing orthodoxy of the time especially for African developing economies. Many critics (see e.g Maujean, 1996) argue that this programme was superficially planned with no support schemes nor incentives proposed to the enterp rises. Although, the import substitution strategy was soon overshadowed by an export-oriented strategy with the setting up of Export-Processing Zones, many small-scale enterprises exploited the products mentioned above for the domestic market. In fact, most SMEs today cater for the local market in similar areas as mentioned above. According to Maujean (1996) the early enterprises were attempts to reproduce locally models which existed abroad. In food processing, firms like Purlait Ltd, La Boulangerie Industrielle and Lyons Maid which pioneered private, small-scale enterprises in the country started off with enormous difficulties in spite of being relatively modern with an important capital investment and sophisticated distribution network. The concern with survival in a largely traditional and poorly developed society meant that the local market was not yet ready for such products. Nevertheless against this background a protectionist strategy which involved high tariff against competitive goods helped these industries to operate. As Wignaraja and Oneil (1999) argue, for the size of the country and its stage of development, Mauritius has a particularly wide range of support services for the SME sector. Beyene (2002) makes a largely similar argument especially when looking at it by African standards. This wide array of support is provided mainly through Government and parastatal agencies or financial institutions. The Small Enterprises and handicraft Development Authority (SEHDA), Enterprise Mauritius (EM), the Development Bank of Mauritius Ltd (DBM), the Small Medium Enterprises Partnership Fund (SMEPF), the National Computer Board (NCB) are generally regarded as the main institutions which provide support to SMEs by operating schemes to enhance the setting up or development of enterprises. They act mainly as facilitators, providing financial support, training and consultancy services, marketing and export assistance. The Small Enterprises and Handicraft Development Authority (SEHDA) The Small Enterprises Handicraft Development Authority (SEHDA) was created following the merger of the Small Medium industries Development Organisation (SMIDO) and the National Handicraft Promotion Agency (NHPA). The aim of the merger is to rationalize and optimize the use of resources dedicated to the small business sector in Mauritius. SEHDA, falling under the aegis of the Ministry of Industry, SMEs, Commerce Co-operatives, provides support to potential and existing small entrepreneurs with a view to enable them to start new enterprises or to improve their existing businesses. Enterprise Mauritius (EM) Enterprise Mauritius operates under the aegis of the Ministry of Industry, SMEs, Commerce Co-operatives and we have one primary objective, driving growth in exports both regionally and internationally through export sectors at 3 levels: Assisting in the development of Industry Sector strategies and Action plans The facilitation of Strategic Clusters to meet commonly shared group objectives And ultimately, working with individual businesses to help them develop an integrated market and capability development plan to provide access to resources that meet their specific requirements Development Bank of Mauritius An important part of the Banks resources is geared towards the development, consolidation and modernization of the SME sector. A separate department at the DBM is in fact dedicated to promote entrepreneurship development. Loans are provided at competitive rates for start-ups, financing of production equipment, technology improvement and also for working capital with the maximum quantum allocated varying according to industrial sectors. With respect to exports, the DBM runs the Export Development Fund for participation in overseas trade fairs and market surveys and also provides loans for joint ventures with overseas partners. Together with the DBM, other commercial banks such as the Mauritius Post and Cooperative Bank (MPCB), the MCB and the STB offer credit facilities albeit at less competitive rates and relatively more important collaterals to small entrepreneurs. Recently most of the main banks in the country (MCCB, MCB, Barclays and the State Bank) have also announced preferentia l interest rates for SMEs. Small and Medium Enterprises Partnership Fund (SMEPF) A parastatal body set up to provide funding ranging from Rs. 300,000 to Rs. 3 million amounting up to 50% of the total capitalization of the business. The criterion used is the evaluation of the business plan of the proposed venture to assess its feasibility to allow the return of the allocated funds within a period of five years. SMEPF is gradually gaining more importance as a source of funding to SMEs. National Computer Board (NCB) The NCB was set up as the apex organisation to develop and promote ICT and ICT-related services in Mauritius. Its main contribution towards SME development has been in terms of its incubator centre mainly for ICT start-ups with the main objectives of promoting entrepreneurship in the ICT sector by providing the necessary infrastructure and logistics, the development of linkages with other institutions and marketing. Moreover it runs sensitization programmes regularly for SMEs in order to familiarize and influence them to the strategic and financial benefits of integrating ICTs in the running of their enterprises. Information and Communication Technology Authority (ICTA) The ICTA is a regulatory body set up in 2001 replacing the former Mauritius Telecommunications Authority. The main objectives of ICTA are listed below: To democratize access to information, taking into account quality, diversity and plurality To license and regulate the information and communication services To encourage optimum use of ICT in business, industry and government at large, the introduction of new technology and the investment in infrastructure and services Other SME Supporting Institutions Together with the above institutions there are others, which mainly private sector bodies such as the Mauritius Employers Federation (MEF), and Mauritius Chamber of Commerce and Industry (MCCI) do provide miscellaneous facilities for SMEs more specifically in terms of documentation, training, advice and consultancy. Despite the variety of measures described above, it is acknowledged that the full potential of the SME sector has yet to be unleashed, the more so in the contemporary context of globalization which calls for greater competitiveness and efficiency in both local and overseas markets. A review of the existing literature on the difficulties faced by the SME sector pinpoints the shortcomings of the existing support system. As Wignaraja and ONeil (1999, p 64) argue: Undoubtedly the investment in SME support is not delivering the growth required or expected at the enterprise level and this must be improved. An overhaul of the entire support system is required to address the deficiencies () and to create a more cohesive integrated framework. It has been noted that owing to the fact that SMEs are quite flexible, they sometimes lack the vision and discipline to maintain a coherent strategy to wards the market. IFC (2004) proposed that an aggressive push to be given to the sector of training and education. One of the most important barriers to the adoption of e-business in Mauritius remains the lack of trust into the system. Indeed, (Kuwayama, 2001) found that companies believed that transactions on the internet were very unsafe. This situation seems to be recurrent in other developing countries as suggested by (Payne, 2002) Aspects of Internet and Issues The use of internet in business is one of the tools that e-commerce offers. We start therefore by overseeing some general facts about e-commerce as pertains to SMEs. General e-commerce facts related to SMEs The use of the Internet and communication technologies has been found to improve business competitiveness, with the Internet providing the opportunity for SMEs to compete on equal terms with larger organizations (Chapman et al., 2000). The development of e-commerce in the last ten years all over the world has involved a growing number of businesses. E-commerce has been used as an important lever to promote business growth (Bianchi and Bivona, 2002). It is important for a firm grow continuously if the firm wants to maintain competitive advantage. Thus firms should struggle for continuous growth keeping the aim of increasing or simply maintaining their sales and profits levels, to ensure their survival (Claver et al., 2006). Throughout management literature, many successful stories are spread and researchers are encouraging SMEs to start e-commerce ventures in order to increase their sales (Bianchi and Bivona, 2002). At the same time there is considerable effort expended, both in time and money, by governments to encourage small and medium sized enterprises to invest in the use of the Internet (Beckinsale and Levy, 2004). According to Levy and Powell (2002) most SMEs do not view the Internet as the key to their business strategy. Strategy is rarely raised as an enabler or as an inhibitor in the literature. The entrepreneur is critical in determining the Internet development. However, strategic commitment has been shown to be critical in SMEs. Research in several countries show that SMEs have been slower to adopt e-commerce than their larger counterparts, but the rate of the Internet usage in SMEs is growing quite rapidly. Internet has focused on large firms, new business models, the growth and development of dot-coms and the new economy. SMEs in traditional industries have been slower to adopt e-commerce than their larger competitors and research into the use of the Internet by such firms is more recent. (Drew, 2003) Furthermore, compared to the extensive literature on the importance and potential of the Internet as component of the business environment, research on organizational evolution and strategy for the Internet in businesses is limited and sketchy. The majority of publications, text books, press articles, and white papers on the Internet strategy deal with this issue on a somewhat tactical level: How to build up unique competitive position, attract customers, and increase sales. (Constantinides, 2004) In many ways the field of entrepreneurship and small medium sized firm research seems no closer to understanding the dynamics of small business growth after decades of empirical studies (Lowe and Henson, 2004). Whilst the issue of growth in small firms is topical and well researched, the literature on growth processes and transitions in high-growth small firms is sparse and underrepresented in the entrepreneurship and small business journals. A recent content review of abstracts obtained via a database search identified only two percent addressing issues of high growth, growth processes and transitions as being key elements of the published papers. Saulnier and Rosson (2004) further mention that expressions made about the importance of e-business have not been fully matched by actions taken, particularly in the areas of staff training, technology infrastructure, and applications to deal with growth. The use of ICT, technology upgrading, and continuous innovation are paramount to being competitive and run at optimum efficiency. However there is relatively little empirical data pertaining to SMEs in Mauritius and more particularly regarding the extent to which they have adopted ICTs in day to day running of their businesses. A survey by Matadeen (2004) showed that most of the Mauritian companies were managed by the owners themselves irrespective of the fact that they may have management skills or not. With this in mind, the strategy to develop for SMEs and e-business must take into account the local culture and customs in Mauritius. Possible Role of the Internet in Specific Growth Strategies Adopted by SMEs The Internet is usually presented as an opportunity for smaller firms because it helps reduce transaction costs and level the playing field. Often cited benefits include expanding the scope of marketing, wider and richer communication, reaching new markets, reducing the cost of operations and partnering with suppliers and other collaborators. (Drew, 2003) The Internet provides a unique opportunity to examine the evolution and growth of a business sector because it has taken place over a relatively short time period (Javalgi et al. 2004). The initial Internet environment might be described as a virgin environment, in which rapid growth could be expected. Among emerging technologies, the Internet is a new channel for commerce applicable in a wide variety of industries around the world. As a new strategic tool, it is transforming businesses and creating new opportunities as well as challenges for international marketers as many nations are fast connecting to the global marketplace. Information technology is continuing to be an integral part of the business plan. Electronic commerce is affecting the way business are planning growth strategies and is the leading driver of corporate growth. The key is for IT to be seen as the new engine for growth, and not as a frustrating cost center. This result in a new way of thinking: The focus should be not on how much new technology should cost, but on how much revenue it will bring in. (Fruhling and Digman, 2000) Many SMEs have made innovative uses of the Internet to invent new business models or to enhance existing practices (Drew, 2003). Firms with a history of innovation are embarking on a full- scale electronic commerce strategy. These firms are tying innovation with electronic commerce with the hopes to ensure company growth. Fruhling and Digman (2000) mention electronic commerce enables business to quickly and efficiently implement growth strategies. One of the main reasons this strategy is so attractive is the incredible growth rate of the Internet users. Key Drivers for adoption of the Internet in SME Growth Levy and Powell (2002) explored the adoption of the Internet among SMEs and formulated a model for the Internet adoption. This model identifies four roles for the Internet in SMEs brochure ware, support, opportunity, and network. These are driven by business growth planning and perceived the Internet value as shown in figure: Business Growth Levy and Powell (2002) advocate two key drivers in determining the use of internet by SMEs. The first driver is business growth. In some firms business growth is planned and investments are made ahead of need. In many other SMEs growth may occur but not as a result of planning. Attitude to business growth often determine whether SME owners consider resource investment in the business. IT investment is traditionally restricted in SMEs, with many investing at start-up, but no further investment is made until business outgrows existing system. It is reasonable that attitude to growth will impact SMEs decision to invest in the Internet. Business Value from Use of the Internet The second driver is business value from use of the Internet. Business value of the Internet is identified through response to the firms competitive positioning and their knowledge of respective industries. SMEs do consider the role of the Internet for their business generally with cautious approach. Most firms do not see the value of the Internet to their growth strategy. However, a number of visionary owners believe they can change their business through the use of the Internet. (Levy and Powell, 2002) Brochureware are those firms that do not plan business growth and see the value of the Internet as low. Owners generally think about the Internet but cannot see its relevance to their business. One of the reasons is nature of industry in which SME operates. Hence, there is a role for the Internet for these firms but it is restricted to the presentation of on-line firm information or brochures and for e-mails. (Levy and Powell, 2002) Business Opportunity is SMEs with recognition that the Internet has some value to them, in the future. However, it is limited to improving efficiency internally, customer communication, and research. The contrast between this category and Brochureware is that owners recognize the business value of the Internet and although not seeking growth, recognize that competitive pressure demand investment. These firms see a business opportunity from use of the Internet and related. (Levy and Powell, 2002) Firms using the Internet for Business Support are planning growth, but currently see little future for their businesses from the Internet. Most of time these SMEs are innovative firms seeking growth. They have a number of innovative products that are sold to large firms, so personal contact is regarded by customers as important and there is little indication that the Internet is of value. These SMEs seek to grow but do not believe that industry demands investment in the Internet to support that growth. These firms see the worth of the Internet as a medium for business support. (Levy and Powell, 2002) In Business Network opportunity from the Internet is seen as key to the development of SMEs. Firms see their future tied into using the Internet. Firms develop IT strategy alongside their business strategy most of the time. These are well positioned to take advantage of e-Business. These firms possesses effective internal network accessible by all employees as means to manage the business processes. (Levy and Powell, 2002) Advantages of the Internet for SME Growth According to Davis et al. (2000) a firm-specific advantage in penetrating international markets and facilitating organizational growth may stem from investments in technology or the use of specific technologies, such as the Internet. There is a long history of research linking technology and internationalization. Researchers advocate that to enter foreign markets, a firm must possess some clear advantage that will allow it to overcome native firms more thorough understanding of the local market. Traditionally, multinational corporations use economies of scale and other advantages of large size. However, many entrepreneurial firms can overcome the disadvantage of small size through their use of technology, such as the Internet, to reach consumers beyond their borders. Certain technologies can provide an advantage that widens market opportunities and serves as a platform for expansion. The Internet is widely considered to be one such technology rapid internationalization. (Davis et al. 2000) Authors argue that internationalization and growth of firms are positively affected by increased use of the Internet and increased investments in information technology. In addition, more attention is to be paid to the application of the Internet as well as to the pattern of investments in information technology to explain international expansion and growth among entrepreneur- led businesses. The continued globalization of the world economy makes the realization of role of technology in expanding overseas and maintaining healthy growth. Davis et al. (2000) mention that firms with more aggressive use of technology are likely to engage more in international activities. Their study of internationalization among new, high-tech firms reveals that firms with higher levels of technology usage incur costs associated with internationalizing to be significantly lower than firms with lower levels of technology usage. It appears that companies with a technological advantage have an incentive to expand overseas because they can use that advantage in overseas markets at little or no marginal cost over the cost of developing the advantage in the domestic market. Role of the Internet in Product-Market Development Strategy Market Development Online channels are used to sell into new markets, taking advantage of the low cost of advertising internationally without the necessity for a supporting sales infrastructure in the customers regions (Chaffey et al. 2003). This is a relatively conservative use of the Internet, but is great opportunity for SMEs to increase exports at low cost. A less evident benefit of the Internet is that as well as selling into new geographic markets, products can also be sold to new market segments or different types of customers. This may happen simply as a byproduct of having a web site. The Internet may offer further opportunities for selling to market sub-segments that have not been previously targeted. For example, a product sold to large businesses may also appeal to small firms. Product Development The Internet can be the basis for product development, information sharing, resource sharing, knowledge sharing and task assigning between different businesses. This can improve product quality and decrease development time and cost. (Yujun et al., 2006) Product development is innovative use of the Internet (Chaffey et al., 2003). Howe et al., (2000) report that the Internet provides global access to people, data, software, documents and multimedia have allowed organizations to shorten the development cycle of new products, to communicate with experts from around the world, to receive immediate customer feedback, and to access supercomputers for industrial research and development. According to Howe et al., (2000) the Internet and its related applications can be effectively implemented at various stages of product development. For example, online forums, newsgroups, and Web sites provide an external source for product ideas. Market research can be performed on the Internet as numerous Web sites provide demographic information useful for estimating market size and potential. Surveys can be conducted on the Internet during the business case preparation to determine consumers needs, wants and preferences. Web-based and intranet applications can play an important role in the development phase, particularly when projects involve numerous teams at various locations. Providing effective media for communicating and disseminating information, these technologies also facilitate concurrent engineering. The Internet can be used for beta testing of new products, allowing lead users and firms to collaboratively eliminate product defects prior to market introduction. The Internet and its related technologies can add significant value to new-product development projects. The main value lies in the acceleration of profitable ideas through the new product development process. At the same time, risks associated with this `rush to market are minimized as a formal system to weed out poor ideas quickly and to suggest modifications to product concepts. The use of the Internet and/or intranet at various stages not only minimizes time to launch but can also increase the integration of constituent viewpoints/recommendations, example consumers, engineers, marketing, etc., during development. This integration of the `voice of the customer and other functional members of the firm are critical in successful new product introductions. Need for speed is becoming more salient in todays competitive arena. The firm that is first to launch a new product/technology, i.e. the pioneer, can accrue several pioneering advantages. These advantages include, but are not limit ed to: establishing product standards, building brand equity (combination of awareness, perceived quality, brand loyalty, etc.), securing distribution channels, and setting initial customer expectation for all other products. (Howe et al., 2000) The Internet offers opportunities for firms in their new product development pursuits in terms of enhancing their abilities to collect, categorize and use information needed for product development; helping them understand their market better and thus target it more effectively; generating a wider range of new product ideas from a wider range of sources; making the concept screening process more comprehensive, flexible and objective; increasing the speed and the quality of business analyses; facilitating the collaboration of new product team members and enhancing operational performance; increasing the speed and the quality of testing and validation; improving the effectiveness and the efficiency of manufacturing development; enhancing the effectiveness and the efficiency of new product launch. (Howe et al., 2000) LEGAL ASPECTS Laws Covering Cross-Border Electronic Transactions between a Buyer and a Seller Business to Business (B2B) transactions differs from Business to Consumer (B2C) transactions on the way an agreement is entered. In the case of a B2C transaction, the parties involved have to abide by the public policy laws of the consumers country, which are meant to protect the consumer. On the other hand, parties have the freedom to choose which law will govern their contract. They have to state which law will govern their transaction(s). In case they have not specified, the jurisdiction responsible for the case will have to decide which law is applicable. In general, two solutions are most commonly applied: The applicable law will be the law of the country of the seller or The applicable law is that of the place of the signing of the contract. Point of Sale for Which the Buyer and the Seller Become Legally Bound Benefits of Internet Opportunities for SMEs in Mauritius Benefits of Internet Opportunities for SMEs in Mauritius Acknowledgement Many individuals have played an important role in our upbringing and education To our parents, who deserve special recognition. We would also like to extend a special acknowledgement to our lecturer, Mr. D Seethiah for giving us the opportunity to reflect and work on such a project. Thanks to our group who have been working very hard for accomplishment of this assignment. Finally, we extend our appreciation to the Almighty for granting us good health and prosperity. Executive summary SMEs are called upon to play a competitive role in the economy of Mauritius. Adoption of ICT by SMEs can a have positive impact on the national economy. The reasons are: (a) Internet based infrastructures are relatively cheap; (b) they provide an ever converging and rich environment for effective business networking; and (c) they provide SMEs access to a larger market. This assignment examines the extent internet provides opportunities for business expansion of SMEs in Mauritius. It also identifies the enablers and barriers to the use of internet by SMEs. A questionnaire was used to collect data among some SMEs. They were classified as follows: IT Novice, IT Savvy and e-Commerce Specialist. The findings are reported, based on the analysis of the data collected. Several key findings emerge from the research in this assignment: IT Savvy and e-Commerce Specialist use computers, they have internet connection that they exclusively use for email and they have a website too. The degree of diffusion of the internet is high among IT Savvy and e-Commerce Specialist. For SMEs to take advantage of the opportunities provided by the internet for business expansion, they will have to acquire knowledge and skills in using the internet and be made aware of the facilities being offered by the NCB and the existing laws in the field of e-commerce. They will also have to bank on the vulgarization of the use of internet amongst customers or at least, for the time being, design/customize products that could help target a certain market segment. Introduction Internet has revolutionized and continues to deeply impact on the way one does business. It is now a major tool for conducting business. It allows buyers and sellers to meet online, communicate and exchange information on goods and services. Besides, it does away with the geographical boundaries, the time zones and, in some cases, the need for physical space to transact business. With its tremendous potential, it has become commonplace for businesses and consumers to transact business via the Internet through email or online purchasing. For the SMEs, it offers a vista of opportunities for business expansion. However, many SMEs do not take advantage of the Internet thinking that their goods and services do not lend themselves to Internet transactions. Moreover, they do not possess the managerial knowledge and skills for e-business. Hiring an IT-expert or an e-business consultant to fill this gap requires relatively huge sum of money, which they cannot afford. Sometimes, the availability of broadband connections may affect the decisions of SMEs to adopt e-commerce. Further, sound government policies should be in place to create the necessary environment and incentives to encourage SMEs to take advantage of the Internet to create business opportunities. Many unscrupulous persons are interested in the huge potential of the Internet for their own selfish motives. In countries where there are no appropriate legal instruments, there may be a host of possible attacks that compromise the confidentiality, integrity and availability of information that they exchange through the Internet. Consequently, people may lose trust on the security of doing business in the Internet and thus forego it huge potential for business. Literature Review SMEs in MAURITIUS According to the minister of Finance and Economic Development, Dr. R. K. Sithanen: A key component in the governments agenda for economic development and democratization is the development of the small and medium enterprise sector into a competitive force (April 2006). Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) are widely acknowledged as an important sector for national and international economic development. Growth oriented small business make a major contribution to economic development and employment generation within local communities and national economies. (Smallbone and Wyer, 2000) SMEs contribute substantially to national economies (Poon and Swatman, 1999) and are estimated to account for 80 per cent of global economic growth (Jutla et al, 2002). It is no secret that globalization (r)evolution and communication technologies (ICT) are going to change the structure of the any economy. (Kaushalesh Lal and Aveeraj Sharma Peedoly, 2006). With the government of Mauritius promoting small and medium enterprises as a competitive sector of the economy, organizational and technological changes in these firms are expected to have significant impact on the national economy. Proponents of globalization argue that it will open a window of opportunities for SMEs while networking capabilities of ICTs suggest that SMEs can augment their competitiveness in global markets. In fact several studies (Lal, 2004 and Drew, 2003) found positive impact of the adoption of ICTs by SMEs. Although there is very little data pertaining to the evolution of SMEs across time, the origins of SMEs in Mauritius can be traced back to the 1960s when Mauritius was witnessing the beginning of a timid industrialization process with an import-substitution strategy with the main objective of supplying the local market and giving certain autonomy to the country. The inward-looking industrial policy of the Government of the day was of encouraging the production of such commodities as the manufacturing of blades, electrical bulbs, batteries, soap, welding and steel work for construction, refining edible oils, plastic industry, food canning, industrial poultry breeding, yogurt manufacturing, biscuits, shoes, matches etc for the domestic market; this was also the prevailing orthodoxy of the time especially for African developing economies. Many critics (see e.g Maujean, 1996) argue that this programme was superficially planned with no support schemes nor incentives proposed to the enterp rises. Although, the import substitution strategy was soon overshadowed by an export-oriented strategy with the setting up of Export-Processing Zones, many small-scale enterprises exploited the products mentioned above for the domestic market. In fact, most SMEs today cater for the local market in similar areas as mentioned above. According to Maujean (1996) the early enterprises were attempts to reproduce locally models which existed abroad. In food processing, firms like Purlait Ltd, La Boulangerie Industrielle and Lyons Maid which pioneered private, small-scale enterprises in the country started off with enormous difficulties in spite of being relatively modern with an important capital investment and sophisticated distribution network. The concern with survival in a largely traditional and poorly developed society meant that the local market was not yet ready for such products. Nevertheless against this background a protectionist strategy which involved high tariff against competitive goods helped these industries to operate. As Wignaraja and Oneil (1999) argue, for the size of the country and its stage of development, Mauritius has a particularly wide range of support services for the SME sector. Beyene (2002) makes a largely similar argument especially when looking at it by African standards. This wide array of support is provided mainly through Government and parastatal agencies or financial institutions. The Small Enterprises and handicraft Development Authority (SEHDA), Enterprise Mauritius (EM), the Development Bank of Mauritius Ltd (DBM), the Small Medium Enterprises Partnership Fund (SMEPF), the National Computer Board (NCB) are generally regarded as the main institutions which provide support to SMEs by operating schemes to enhance the setting up or development of enterprises. They act mainly as facilitators, providing financial support, training and consultancy services, marketing and export assistance. The Small Enterprises and Handicraft Development Authority (SEHDA) The Small Enterprises Handicraft Development Authority (SEHDA) was created following the merger of the Small Medium industries Development Organisation (SMIDO) and the National Handicraft Promotion Agency (NHPA). The aim of the merger is to rationalize and optimize the use of resources dedicated to the small business sector in Mauritius. SEHDA, falling under the aegis of the Ministry of Industry, SMEs, Commerce Co-operatives, provides support to potential and existing small entrepreneurs with a view to enable them to start new enterprises or to improve their existing businesses. Enterprise Mauritius (EM) Enterprise Mauritius operates under the aegis of the Ministry of Industry, SMEs, Commerce Co-operatives and we have one primary objective, driving growth in exports both regionally and internationally through export sectors at 3 levels: Assisting in the development of Industry Sector strategies and Action plans The facilitation of Strategic Clusters to meet commonly shared group objectives And ultimately, working with individual businesses to help them develop an integrated market and capability development plan to provide access to resources that meet their specific requirements Development Bank of Mauritius An important part of the Banks resources is geared towards the development, consolidation and modernization of the SME sector. A separate department at the DBM is in fact dedicated to promote entrepreneurship development. Loans are provided at competitive rates for start-ups, financing of production equipment, technology improvement and also for working capital with the maximum quantum allocated varying according to industrial sectors. With respect to exports, the DBM runs the Export Development Fund for participation in overseas trade fairs and market surveys and also provides loans for joint ventures with overseas partners. Together with the DBM, other commercial banks such as the Mauritius Post and Cooperative Bank (MPCB), the MCB and the STB offer credit facilities albeit at less competitive rates and relatively more important collaterals to small entrepreneurs. Recently most of the main banks in the country (MCCB, MCB, Barclays and the State Bank) have also announced preferentia l interest rates for SMEs. Small and Medium Enterprises Partnership Fund (SMEPF) A parastatal body set up to provide funding ranging from Rs. 300,000 to Rs. 3 million amounting up to 50% of the total capitalization of the business. The criterion used is the evaluation of the business plan of the proposed venture to assess its feasibility to allow the return of the allocated funds within a period of five years. SMEPF is gradually gaining more importance as a source of funding to SMEs. National Computer Board (NCB) The NCB was set up as the apex organisation to develop and promote ICT and ICT-related services in Mauritius. Its main contribution towards SME development has been in terms of its incubator centre mainly for ICT start-ups with the main objectives of promoting entrepreneurship in the ICT sector by providing the necessary infrastructure and logistics, the development of linkages with other institutions and marketing. Moreover it runs sensitization programmes regularly for SMEs in order to familiarize and influence them to the strategic and financial benefits of integrating ICTs in the running of their enterprises. Information and Communication Technology Authority (ICTA) The ICTA is a regulatory body set up in 2001 replacing the former Mauritius Telecommunications Authority. The main objectives of ICTA are listed below: To democratize access to information, taking into account quality, diversity and plurality To license and regulate the information and communication services To encourage optimum use of ICT in business, industry and government at large, the introduction of new technology and the investment in infrastructure and services Other SME Supporting Institutions Together with the above institutions there are others, which mainly private sector bodies such as the Mauritius Employers Federation (MEF), and Mauritius Chamber of Commerce and Industry (MCCI) do provide miscellaneous facilities for SMEs more specifically in terms of documentation, training, advice and consultancy. Despite the variety of measures described above, it is acknowledged that the full potential of the SME sector has yet to be unleashed, the more so in the contemporary context of globalization which calls for greater competitiveness and efficiency in both local and overseas markets. A review of the existing literature on the difficulties faced by the SME sector pinpoints the shortcomings of the existing support system. As Wignaraja and ONeil (1999, p 64) argue: Undoubtedly the investment in SME support is not delivering the growth required or expected at the enterprise level and this must be improved. An overhaul of the entire support system is required to address the deficiencies () and to create a more cohesive integrated framework. It has been noted that owing to the fact that SMEs are quite flexible, they sometimes lack the vision and discipline to maintain a coherent strategy to wards the market. IFC (2004) proposed that an aggressive push to be given to the sector of training and education. One of the most important barriers to the adoption of e-business in Mauritius remains the lack of trust into the system. Indeed, (Kuwayama, 2001) found that companies believed that transactions on the internet were very unsafe. This situation seems to be recurrent in other developing countries as suggested by (Payne, 2002) Aspects of Internet and Issues The use of internet in business is one of the tools that e-commerce offers. We start therefore by overseeing some general facts about e-commerce as pertains to SMEs. General e-commerce facts related to SMEs The use of the Internet and communication technologies has been found to improve business competitiveness, with the Internet providing the opportunity for SMEs to compete on equal terms with larger organizations (Chapman et al., 2000). The development of e-commerce in the last ten years all over the world has involved a growing number of businesses. E-commerce has been used as an important lever to promote business growth (Bianchi and Bivona, 2002). It is important for a firm grow continuously if the firm wants to maintain competitive advantage. Thus firms should struggle for continuous growth keeping the aim of increasing or simply maintaining their sales and profits levels, to ensure their survival (Claver et al., 2006). Throughout management literature, many successful stories are spread and researchers are encouraging SMEs to start e-commerce ventures in order to increase their sales (Bianchi and Bivona, 2002). At the same time there is considerable effort expended, both in time and money, by governments to encourage small and medium sized enterprises to invest in the use of the Internet (Beckinsale and Levy, 2004). According to Levy and Powell (2002) most SMEs do not view the Internet as the key to their business strategy. Strategy is rarely raised as an enabler or as an inhibitor in the literature. The entrepreneur is critical in determining the Internet development. However, strategic commitment has been shown to be critical in SMEs. Research in several countries show that SMEs have been slower to adopt e-commerce than their larger counterparts, but the rate of the Internet usage in SMEs is growing quite rapidly. Internet has focused on large firms, new business models, the growth and development of dot-coms and the new economy. SMEs in traditional industries have been slower to adopt e-commerce than their larger competitors and research into the use of the Internet by such firms is more recent. (Drew, 2003) Furthermore, compared to the extensive literature on the importance and potential of the Internet as component of the business environment, research on organizational evolution and strategy for the Internet in businesses is limited and sketchy. The majority of publications, text books, press articles, and white papers on the Internet strategy deal with this issue on a somewhat tactical level: How to build up unique competitive position, attract customers, and increase sales. (Constantinides, 2004) In many ways the field of entrepreneurship and small medium sized firm research seems no closer to understanding the dynamics of small business growth after decades of empirical studies (Lowe and Henson, 2004). Whilst the issue of growth in small firms is topical and well researched, the literature on growth processes and transitions in high-growth small firms is sparse and underrepresented in the entrepreneurship and small business journals. A recent content review of abstracts obtained via a database search identified only two percent addressing issues of high growth, growth processes and transitions as being key elements of the published papers. Saulnier and Rosson (2004) further mention that expressions made about the importance of e-business have not been fully matched by actions taken, particularly in the areas of staff training, technology infrastructure, and applications to deal with growth. The use of ICT, technology upgrading, and continuous innovation are paramount to being competitive and run at optimum efficiency. However there is relatively little empirical data pertaining to SMEs in Mauritius and more particularly regarding the extent to which they have adopted ICTs in day to day running of their businesses. A survey by Matadeen (2004) showed that most of the Mauritian companies were managed by the owners themselves irrespective of the fact that they may have management skills or not. With this in mind, the strategy to develop for SMEs and e-business must take into account the local culture and customs in Mauritius. Possible Role of the Internet in Specific Growth Strategies Adopted by SMEs The Internet is usually presented as an opportunity for smaller firms because it helps reduce transaction costs and level the playing field. Often cited benefits include expanding the scope of marketing, wider and richer communication, reaching new markets, reducing the cost of operations and partnering with suppliers and other collaborators. (Drew, 2003) The Internet provides a unique opportunity to examine the evolution and growth of a business sector because it has taken place over a relatively short time period (Javalgi et al. 2004). The initial Internet environment might be described as a virgin environment, in which rapid growth could be expected. Among emerging technologies, the Internet is a new channel for commerce applicable in a wide variety of industries around the world. As a new strategic tool, it is transforming businesses and creating new opportunities as well as challenges for international marketers as many nations are fast connecting to the global marketplace. Information technology is continuing to be an integral part of the business plan. Electronic commerce is affecting the way business are planning growth strategies and is the leading driver of corporate growth. The key is for IT to be seen as the new engine for growth, and not as a frustrating cost center. This result in a new way of thinking: The focus should be not on how much new technology should cost, but on how much revenue it will bring in. (Fruhling and Digman, 2000) Many SMEs have made innovative uses of the Internet to invent new business models or to enhance existing practices (Drew, 2003). Firms with a history of innovation are embarking on a full- scale electronic commerce strategy. These firms are tying innovation with electronic commerce with the hopes to ensure company growth. Fruhling and Digman (2000) mention electronic commerce enables business to quickly and efficiently implement growth strategies. One of the main reasons this strategy is so attractive is the incredible growth rate of the Internet users. Key Drivers for adoption of the Internet in SME Growth Levy and Powell (2002) explored the adoption of the Internet among SMEs and formulated a model for the Internet adoption. This model identifies four roles for the Internet in SMEs brochure ware, support, opportunity, and network. These are driven by business growth planning and perceived the Internet value as shown in figure: Business Growth Levy and Powell (2002) advocate two key drivers in determining the use of internet by SMEs. The first driver is business growth. In some firms business growth is planned and investments are made ahead of need. In many other SMEs growth may occur but not as a result of planning. Attitude to business growth often determine whether SME owners consider resource investment in the business. IT investment is traditionally restricted in SMEs, with many investing at start-up, but no further investment is made until business outgrows existing system. It is reasonable that attitude to growth will impact SMEs decision to invest in the Internet. Business Value from Use of the Internet The second driver is business value from use of the Internet. Business value of the Internet is identified through response to the firms competitive positioning and their knowledge of respective industries. SMEs do consider the role of the Internet for their business generally with cautious approach. Most firms do not see the value of the Internet to their growth strategy. However, a number of visionary owners believe they can change their business through the use of the Internet. (Levy and Powell, 2002) Brochureware are those firms that do not plan business growth and see the value of the Internet as low. Owners generally think about the Internet but cannot see its relevance to their business. One of the reasons is nature of industry in which SME operates. Hence, there is a role for the Internet for these firms but it is restricted to the presentation of on-line firm information or brochures and for e-mails. (Levy and Powell, 2002) Business Opportunity is SMEs with recognition that the Internet has some value to them, in the future. However, it is limited to improving efficiency internally, customer communication, and research. The contrast between this category and Brochureware is that owners recognize the business value of the Internet and although not seeking growth, recognize that competitive pressure demand investment. These firms see a business opportunity from use of the Internet and related. (Levy and Powell, 2002) Firms using the Internet for Business Support are planning growth, but currently see little future for their businesses from the Internet. Most of time these SMEs are innovative firms seeking growth. They have a number of innovative products that are sold to large firms, so personal contact is regarded by customers as important and there is little indication that the Internet is of value. These SMEs seek to grow but do not believe that industry demands investment in the Internet to support that growth. These firms see the worth of the Internet as a medium for business support. (Levy and Powell, 2002) In Business Network opportunity from the Internet is seen as key to the development of SMEs. Firms see their future tied into using the Internet. Firms develop IT strategy alongside their business strategy most of the time. These are well positioned to take advantage of e-Business. These firms possesses effective internal network accessible by all employees as means to manage the business processes. (Levy and Powell, 2002) Advantages of the Internet for SME Growth According to Davis et al. (2000) a firm-specific advantage in penetrating international markets and facilitating organizational growth may stem from investments in technology or the use of specific technologies, such as the Internet. There is a long history of research linking technology and internationalization. Researchers advocate that to enter foreign markets, a firm must possess some clear advantage that will allow it to overcome native firms more thorough understanding of the local market. Traditionally, multinational corporations use economies of scale and other advantages of large size. However, many entrepreneurial firms can overcome the disadvantage of small size through their use of technology, such as the Internet, to reach consumers beyond their borders. Certain technologies can provide an advantage that widens market opportunities and serves as a platform for expansion. The Internet is widely considered to be one such technology rapid internationalization. (Davis et al. 2000) Authors argue that internationalization and growth of firms are positively affected by increased use of the Internet and increased investments in information technology. In addition, more attention is to be paid to the application of the Internet as well as to the pattern of investments in information technology to explain international expansion and growth among entrepreneur- led businesses. The continued globalization of the world economy makes the realization of role of technology in expanding overseas and maintaining healthy growth. Davis et al. (2000) mention that firms with more aggressive use of technology are likely to engage more in international activities. Their study of internationalization among new, high-tech firms reveals that firms with higher levels of technology usage incur costs associated with internationalizing to be significantly lower than firms with lower levels of technology usage. It appears that companies with a technological advantage have an incentive to expand overseas because they can use that advantage in overseas markets at little or no marginal cost over the cost of developing the advantage in the domestic market. Role of the Internet in Product-Market Development Strategy Market Development Online channels are used to sell into new markets, taking advantage of the low cost of advertising internationally without the necessity for a supporting sales infrastructure in the customers regions (Chaffey et al. 2003). This is a relatively conservative use of the Internet, but is great opportunity for SMEs to increase exports at low cost. A less evident benefit of the Internet is that as well as selling into new geographic markets, products can also be sold to new market segments or different types of customers. This may happen simply as a byproduct of having a web site. The Internet may offer further opportunities for selling to market sub-segments that have not been previously targeted. For example, a product sold to large businesses may also appeal to small firms. Product Development The Internet can be the basis for product development, information sharing, resource sharing, knowledge sharing and task assigning between different businesses. This can improve product quality and decrease development time and cost. (Yujun et al., 2006) Product development is innovative use of the Internet (Chaffey et al., 2003). Howe et al., (2000) report that the Internet provides global access to people, data, software, documents and multimedia have allowed organizations to shorten the development cycle of new products, to communicate with experts from around the world, to receive immediate customer feedback, and to access supercomputers for industrial research and development. According to Howe et al., (2000) the Internet and its related applications can be effectively implemented at various stages of product development. For example, online forums, newsgroups, and Web sites provide an external source for product ideas. Market research can be performed on the Internet as numerous Web sites provide demographic information useful for estimating market size and potential. Surveys can be conducted on the Internet during the business case preparation to determine consumers needs, wants and preferences. Web-based and intranet applications can play an important role in the development phase, particularly when projects involve numerous teams at various locations. Providing effective media for communicating and disseminating information, these technologies also facilitate concurrent engineering. The Internet can be used for beta testing of new products, allowing lead users and firms to collaboratively eliminate product defects prior to market introduction. The Internet and its related technologies can add significant value to new-product development projects. The main value lies in the acceleration of profitable ideas through the new product development process. At the same time, risks associated with this `rush to market are minimized as a formal system to weed out poor ideas quickly and to suggest modifications to product concepts. The use of the Internet and/or intranet at various stages not only minimizes time to launch but can also increase the integration of constituent viewpoints/recommendations, example consumers, engineers, marketing, etc., during development. This integration of the `voice of the customer and other functional members of the firm are critical in successful new product introductions. Need for speed is becoming more salient in todays competitive arena. The firm that is first to launch a new product/technology, i.e. the pioneer, can accrue several pioneering advantages. These advantages include, but are not limit ed to: establishing product standards, building brand equity (combination of awareness, perceived quality, brand loyalty, etc.), securing distribution channels, and setting initial customer expectation for all other products. (Howe et al., 2000) The Internet offers opportunities for firms in their new product development pursuits in terms of enhancing their abilities to collect, categorize and use information needed for product development; helping them understand their market better and thus target it more effectively; generating a wider range of new product ideas from a wider range of sources; making the concept screening process more comprehensive, flexible and objective; increasing the speed and the quality of business analyses; facilitating the collaboration of new product team members and enhancing operational performance; increasing the speed and the quality of testing and validation; improving the effectiveness and the efficiency of manufacturing development; enhancing the effectiveness and the efficiency of new product launch. (Howe et al., 2000) LEGAL ASPECTS Laws Covering Cross-Border Electronic Transactions between a Buyer and a Seller Business to Business (B2B) transactions differs from Business to Consumer (B2C) transactions on the way an agreement is entered. In the case of a B2C transaction, the parties involved have to abide by the public policy laws of the consumers country, which are meant to protect the consumer. On the other hand, parties have the freedom to choose which law will govern their contract. They have to state which law will govern their transaction(s). In case they have not specified, the jurisdiction responsible for the case will have to decide which law is applicable. In general, two solutions are most commonly applied: The applicable law will be the law of the country of the seller or The applicable law is that of the place of the signing of the contract. Point of Sale for Which the Buyer and the Seller Become Legally Bound

How Theories Obstruct Or Assist Practice Social Work Essay

How Theories Obstruct Or Assist Practice Social Work Essay A requirement for Social Work Training is to ensure that the teaching of theoretical knowledge, skills and values is based on [students] application to practice (NHS, 2002 p.3). In response to the death of baby Peter, the Social Work Taskforce published fifteen recommendations including social work degrees requiring a greater focus on linking theory to practice (DCSF, 2009 p.18). This increased emphasis between theory and practice, will be considered in this essay, by discussing if theories of human growth and development obstruct or assist social workers practice. It is important to recognise that there are a vast amount of human growth and development theories, which cover the life span, although one assumption is that they only relate to childhood. This essay, in considering how theories obstruct or assist practice, will draw on those relating to working with older people. To clarify, this essay will use the word theory to mean both grand theories (those borrowed from other disciplines such as psychology, sociology etc) and middle range theories (those which combine the grand theories with practice experience) (Wilson et al, 2008 pp.106-107). The history of social work is helpful in understanding how theory became relevant for practice. The nineteenth century industrial revolution impacted on the community structures, which led to concerns over social unrest and disorder. These concerns influenced the growth of the social sciences with the idea being to understand and change society. Howe states, as new theories and explanations of human behaviour were generated by psychologists, so new social work theories and practices arose (Howe, 2009 p.17). The Charity Organisation Society (COS), founded in 1869, embraced the psychological theories in their charitable work. COS initially resisted any formal education for charity workers preferring supervision in the job. However, worries over the standard of staff and the impact of the job on them, together with the desire to be recognised as professionals in the social field initiated them to set up formal social work education (Howe, 2009; Payne, 2005b; Jones, 1996 p.191). The value of teaching human growth and development theories to social work students is still recognised today in university courses. Teaching on theory is included in the education as it is seen to legitimise social work, giving the social worker assurance, significance and understanding in their work without any taint of meddling (Jones, 1996 p.193). The use of theory helps the practitioner to feel that their views are knowledgeable and grounded (Milner and OByrne, 2002). Seckers research on social workers students found that those who had a comprehensible understanding of theory were more likely to be approachable and responsive with their service users, sharing their theoretical suggestions with the person (Howe, 2009; Payne, 2005a). Alongside this, is the professionalism a theoretical knowledge gives to social work (Howe, 2009). Thompson (2010) argues that other professionals and service users will be more confident in a social worker who is able to demonstrate that their work is based on a theoretical framework, thus showing skills to comprehend and make sense of the service users situation, rather than one who conjectures. Walker states, it is important that social workers have an understanding of human development to work effectively with other disciplines and to demonstrate a professional literacy commensurate with their status (2010, pp.xiv-xv). An example of this is a social worker working within a Community Mental Health Team alongside Psychiatrists and Community Psychiatric Nurses who advocate the medical model and its emphasis on diagnostics and cures (Parrish, 2010 p.10). Working in this setting does not mean that the social worker needs to ignore a psychosocial perspective. To advocate for service use rs effectively, the social worker needs to understand both the medical and psychosocial perspectives, as Parrish states it necessitate[s] the professional equivalent of being bilingual in being able to understand both perspectives simultaneously (Parrish, 2010 p.10). In 1992, Hindmarshs research on social work graduates, showed that an understanding of theory did provide the graduates with confidence. However, Hindmarsh argued that this confidence did not continue in practice as graduates viewed the use of theory as just a tool to justify their actions or provide accountability to their management (Payne, 2005a). Thompson argues that the professionalism of the social worker is being impacted on by what he describes as managerialism (2010, p.51). Thompson explains that governments budgeting tactics through performance indicators is pushing local government to meet targets. This is filtered down the management structure, so that middle managers are dictating what is required and should be implemented by social workers, in order to achieve the targets. Although social workers are dedicated to the use of theory in their practice, managerialism has led to them lacking professional confidence (2010 p.51). It is argued that theory is too complicated and restricts spontaneity, therefore it is pointless for practice. Instead a more realistic model of using facts about the person, an understanding of the law and practical skills (common sense) is more effective for social work practice (Parrish, 2010; Walker and Crawford, 2010). This view has been strongly argued against, as Coulshed states, theoryless practice does not exist; we cannot avoid looking for explanations to guide our actions, while research has shown that those agencies which profess not to use theory offer a non problem solving, woolly and directionless service (1991, p.8). Some theories become so familiar and accepted that they become incorporated into everyday life and language, for example, Anna Freuds defence mechanisms and Daniel Levinsons mid-life crisis. By the fact that these theories become so socially accepted and embedded into everyday language (described as informal theory), it is difficult for a social worker to avoid using it in their practice. Thompson argues, some sort of conceptual framework (and therefore theory) is therefore inevitable (2010, p.7). Our own life experience does not provide us with sufficient knowledge to be able to help others. It can cause us to filter assessments through our own experience, which may be prejudicial but we could be unaware of this. An advantage of having a theoretical understanding of human growth and development is that it gives us a broader view than our individual life experience and balances decision-making (Walker and Crawford, 2010). Research has shown that social workers have found it difficult or are unaware of how they apply theory to practice (Tanner and Harris, 2008; Smid and Van Krieken, 1984). Therefore, work is a routine procedure for social workers if they do not have an understanding of theory (Parton, 1996, p.92). Social worker education is blamed for this difficulty with universities either being too theoretical, or too practical, whichever emphasis taken, it results in making theory and practice appear as separate entities (Smid and Van Krieken, 1984). The different theoretical approaches to human growth and development can appear confusing to the social worker, as each stress different areas as a reason for the persons situation. An illustration of this is the process of ageing: a biological perspective is to focus on the physical impact of a person growing older; a psychological view however, will focus on the deterioration of cognitive functioning; and finally a sociological perception will look at the social structures and the older persons place in that structure. As Hughes states, The images created by the various theoretical perspectives biological, psychological, sociological, political-economic are intrinsically different and create quite distinct pictures of the experience and social condition of older people (Hughes, 1995 p.18). Although each approach emphasises different areas, they all potentially provide something helpful and equally true (Milner and OByrne, 2002 p.81). With each approach providing something useful in understanding the persons situation the social worker needs to support the service user in finding which one with be most helpful to use (Milner and OByrne, 2002). However, rather than seeing this confusion as a hindrance to social work practice, this is what is central to social work. It is what gives it its value and importance because it specialises in situations where there are no known solutions (Statham and Kearney cited in Howe, 2009 p.190). It is the ability of the social worker to draw together the various theoretical perspectives in order to prepare a realistic and balanced care plan. There are development theories that are in direct conflict and/or dismiss each other such as Disengagement and Activity theories (Hughes, 1995; Howe, 2009). Disengagement Theory proposes that as someone ages they naturally disengage from certain social roles and functions, which ensures continuity of the system and equilibrium between different social groups (Hughes, 1995 pp.25-26). Disengagement was viewed as fulfilling for the older person and providing well-being, as it freed them from certain roles and functions that they no longer were able to fulfill, such as retiring from work, thereby, helping people to age well (Hughes, 1995; Bond et al, 2007). Activity theory completely opposes this idea and proposes that remaining actively involved in the community, both physically and mentally, provided well-being and satisfaction for the person (Walker and Crawford, 2010). Both theories provide definite explanation for the difficulties in getting old. The activity / disengagement debate has led to a number of further theories either trying to resolve the conflict, such as Gubriums socio-environmental approach, or challenge one theory to support the other, such as Cowgills modernisation approach (Lynott and Lynott, 1996). The practitioners dilemma is similar, should they align themselves with one or disregard both theories. A danger for the social worker is that s/he uses theory as a way to discover the truth or ultimate solution for the person (Thompson, 2010, pp.11-12). Lee argues against this, theoretical statements are the general principles that give rise to hypotheses, or speculative facts (1985, p.22). No person or situation is exactly the same which means neither can there be a universal solution or theory to fit all (Lees and Lees, 1975). A postmodern view is that truth cannot be found in one solitary theory, instead a plethora of truths for a particular situation can be found in using multiple theories (Milner and OByrne, 2002). As Pease and Fook cited in Howe state, There are many perspectives and voices and it is now recognised that they all need to be heard if the complex nature of truth is to be established (2009, p.191). Walker (2010) argues that a persons growth and development cannot be clarified by one theory. Parrish takes this further by stating that if a social workers practice were based on one theory it would prove woefully inadequate (2010, p.6). An alignment to one specific theoretical viewpoint can be dangerous, as the social worker is unable to recognise important issues that do not correspond with that particular viewpoint. For example Eriksons eight stages of development although helpful in understanding age related activities, has been criticised for its male, patriarchal stance in lacking awareness of other factors that can impact on development, such as gender, race, social class etc. (Thompson, 2010; Parrish, 2010). This highlights the value of recognising and critically analysing a number of theories in a situation, rather than believing one is more superior to another. As Thompson illustrates, the reflective practitioner being a tailor cutting the cloth of the knowledge base to pr oduce a closely tailored solution to the practice challenges being faced, rather than looking for a ready-made, off-the-peg solution (2010, p.16). A social worker may consider amalgamating a number of theories so to provide one combined theory, which Payne describes as eclecticism (Thompson, 2010 and Payne, 2005a p.31). Eclecticism has been criticised as an inexperienced way to use theory (Payne, 2005a). Instead the current view is to take a critical, reflective approach, using the persons history, behaviour and circumstances. Theories should be considered and weighed up as to their usefulness for each person (Adams et al, 2009; Thompson, 2010). Using a range of theories allows a multi-dimensional understanding of situations to develop and enables the limitations of one perspective to be offset by the advantages of another (Tanner and Harris, 2008 p.37). By taking a critical and reflective approach to theory and practice this can help the social worker make sense of the differences and disagreements between the various human growth and development theories (Payne, 2005a). A critical and reflective approach, allows the social worker to value and accept the variety of theories applicable for a particular situation (Adams, 2009). As Fook argues, critical and postmodern practice therefore involves a recognition of different ways of knowing, in particular a reflexive ability to engage with changing situations (2002, p.44). According to Thompson (2010), the main significant purpose for applying theory to practice is that it defines our practice. Misca states, knowledge of human growth and development plays an essential part in assessing, planning and intervening in a successful, positive way in peoples lives (2009 p.116). Fook describes using theories, as our intellectual tools, rather than as rule books as they assist and direct practice (2002, p.69; Walker and Crawford, 2010). This means that a theoretical knowledge can provide a practitioner with the understanding and explanation of a persons behaviour and situation. Consideration of Bowlbys Attachment theory with aging and dementia will be used to illustrate this. Bowlby stated that typically within the first 9 months of a persons life, they develop an attachment to their primary caregiver. Ainsworth, working alongside Bowlby, extended attachment theory. Through the Strange Situation trials, she proposed three types of attachment behaviours: Anxious /Avoidant, Anxious/Resistant and Securely Attached (Parrish, 2010). Although Bowlby did not carry out any studies on older people, he did argue that, attachment behaviour continues to play a necessary role into adulthood (Browne and Shlosberg, 2006 p.135). It has only been since the late 20th century, that Bowlbys attachment theory has been applied throughout the human lifespan and in particular to dementia (Bond et al, 2007). Bowlby suggested that when adults are unwell or under stress then attachment behaviour is likely (Browne and Shlosberg, 2006). Miesen, an advocator for attachment theory, researched the general behaviours of people with dementia. He likened a demented state of crying, clinging and calling as being in Ainsworths strange situation (Bond et al, 2007). Miesen researched parent fixation which is when a person with dementia believes that his/her deceased parent is still alive. His study concluded that dementia triggers attachment behaviours (Browne and Shlosberg, 2006). De Vries and McChrystal state, Bowlbys attachment theory has provided a conceptual and empirical framework for examining some behaviours of people with dementia and provided a means of interpreting them in terms of responses to loss (2010, p288). A theoretical knowledge also provides solutions for approaches of intervention, to assist the service user and enables the practitioner to anticipate future issues (Parrish, 2010). Continuing to use the above example, two new ways of working within an attachment theory framework have recently been developed to assist working with people with dementia: simulated presence therapy (SPT) and doll therapy (Browne and Shlosberg, 2006). The difficulty for the social worker is that separate theories can lead to different approaches to practice, so that the social worker has to choose which is the right one (Walker and Crawford, 2010). Milner and OBryne (2002) argue that the theory, which provides the greatest insight and leads to an approach that meets the service users objectives, is the one to use. The problem with this is who decides which is the theory that gives the greatest insight, is it the social worker or managerial/government decision. If it is the latter then it disempowers the social worker. However, if it is the former it is dependent on the knowledge base of the social worker. Beckett and Taylor explain, Fortunately or unfortunately, no theory about human life can ever be completely objective or value free (2010 p.4). Human growth and development theories have been criticised for reflecting the dominant beliefs of the theorists society. As Thompson states, Theorising is by no means a pure activity, detached from the reality of the social and political world (1995, p.32). For example, Erikson, Levinson and Havighursts theories on adult stages of development have all been criticised This essay has noted some theories of human growth and development in aging. However, it is also important for a Social Worker in his/her practice to acknowledge that service users will have their own ideas to explain their circumstances and behaviour. As Gubrium and Wallace explain, We find that theory is not something exclusively engaged in by scientists. Rather, there seem to be two existing worlds of theory in human experience, one engaged by those who live the experiences under consideration, and one organised by those who make it their professional business systematically to examine experience (cited in Tanner and Harris, 2008 p.36). Erickson emphasised the need to look at a person as an individual and therefore, a social worker in his/her practice needs to take this into consideration, rather than trying to get a theory to fit the persons situation (Milner and OByrne, 2002). It is important for the social worker to be aware of anti-oppressive practice in considering a theoreti cal framework by not taking into account the service users views. S/he needs to be aware of his/her professional power and also the need to empower the service user in making decisions and changes (McDonald, 2010; Thompson, 2010). As shown, having a theoretical understanding of human growth and development can assist social work practice by legitimising the work done, giving the social worker confidence and providing a framework for the work. However, it is not the theoretical understanding itself that hinders practice but instead the application of the theory. Theory in practice is hindered by managerialism, the danger of anti-oppressive practice and limitations of social workers knowledge and experience .